GENERAL PROPERTY SURVEYING INFORMATION
The following is useful information on Building Terms, Building Materials and Maintenance advice.
Pitched Roofs
· A pitched roof is the name given to any roof with an angle of pitch greater than 10 degrees. Such roofs can be covered with a wide choice of material but, with residential property, tile, slate or thatch are the principle ones.
· The actual angle of the roof slope has to be right for the chosen roof material whilst the roof construction (i.e. the timberwork) must be designed to bear not only the weight of the covering but also the extra weight of rain, snow and wind, etc. If the design of the timberwork is wrong the roof timbers may deflect and water penetration is likely to occur.
· Where the edges of a roof butt up against brickwork or a chimney, etc. it is necessary to insert seals known as soakers or flashings. These are ideally formed in lead but in older properties cement mortar or concrete is often used as a cheaper alternative. These eventually crack and leak.
· Where two roof slopes join (often at right angles), a valley junction is created. These valleys can be formed with tiles or they can be lined in materials such as lead, zinc or glass fibre. The only way valley gutters can work effectively is to have them cleaned out on a regular basis even although access is often difficult. If you do not clean out valley gutters, leaks are very likely.
Flat Roofs
· It is impossible to predict accurately the life of a flat roof. Even if the external materials appear sound, a minor puncture in the covering material can cause problems beneath (often out of sight). Reports that predict the likely life of a flat roof should be viewed with caution, although we often attempt to give a general guide to be helpful.
· Flat roofs have always been considered a part of residential house design. Traditionally they were used on small or secondary areas. From the 1960’s onward, large flat-roofed areas were brought into use but these days we try to minimise flat roof areas and create pitch roofs where possible since most flat roofs are troublesome to some extent or other.
· A flat roof is defined as a roof as having a slope less than 10 degrees. To enable the rainwater to run off its surface, the flat roof must be laid with some slope and if this is too shallow water will collect in puddles on the surface. Such puddles or “ponding” can cause the roof to deteriorate. Damage can also be caused to the substructure under the covering.
· Most flat roofs are not designed for walking on and chippings pressed underfoot can cause punctures in the roofing material. Walkway tiles can, however, be purchased and bedded down when a walkway route is needed.
· Many problems with flat roofs occur on the edges of the roof or in the junctions with walls or nearby roof slopes. Any vertical edging or flashing often indicates a better than average attention to detail. Felt upstands and edge kerbs are very often torn and need careful and regular attention and checking.
· The best designed flat roofs will incorporate modern levels of insulation and will also contain sufficient ventilation to reduce the risk of rot in concealed structural timbers. Being realistic the majority of flat roofs are not built this way and are therefore prone to problems developing out of sight.
· Although felt in one form or another is the most common material found on modern flat roofs, there are others including lead, copper, zinc, fibreglass and asphalt.
Thatched Coverings
· Thatch is one of the oldest techniques still used in building construction today. There are two main materials used – water reed and wheat straw. Water reed is more durable, lasting up to 80 years approximately. Wheat straw comes as either long straw (lasting up to 25 years approximately) or combed wheat reed (which can last up to 40 years).
· The speed at which a thatch roof deteriorates is difficult to judge. Generally, the further west a property is, the faster its thatch deteriorates due to the wetter climate. The quality of the thatching material and the slope of the roof also affect the life of a thatch.
· The steeper the roof slope, the longer the thatch is likely to last. Thatched roofs should never be less than 45º and sometimes can be steeper. It is common for thatched roofs to need patching or replacement of the ridge which is likely to be needed every 10-15 years.
· Fire is a well known risk with thatch. Electrical wiring needs to be checked regularly and ideally a spark arrestor should be fitted to the top of the chimney to prevent sparks and materials falling onto the thatch. It is always good practice to have the chimney lined. Smoke detectors and fire extinguishers are essential additions within the property.
Slate Coverings
· Slate can last anything up to 100 years or more depending on quality, source, thickness, and the skill with which it was cut.
· Natural slates are formed by very thin layers of rock being bonded together. Poorer quality slates may contain impurities which react with water and force the layers apart. This “delaminating” is common on the underside of the slates.
· Slates are held by nails fixed via holes drilled either close to one end or at the centre. It is quite common for slates to split when being fixed but then be left in place, only to slip later. Nails inevitably corrode in time and slates start to slip. This is known as “nail sickness”. Take not of this if it is listed in Section 3 Roof, as it will mean that you face ongoing maintenance. You can identify where slates have already been re-set as they are usually held in place by lead or copper clips, known as tingles. Old slates often shale to a degree whereby their effectiveness is very limited.
· Problems with slate roofs have led some owners to apply a coating over the whole of the covering. This should never be considered an appropriate repair. It can make the roof watertight for a few years. It will certainly mean that complete renewal of the roof will be necessary, as good slates when over-coated cannot be reused. It is also likely to cause condensation problems as the roof stops breathing.
· Traditionally, slate roofs were not underfelted and, this allows the slates to breathe. This practice still has its supporters, but generally, underfelting is considered as important with a slate roof as with a tiled roof. The underfelt provides a secondary protection against leaks if the slates are breached.
· There are various proprietary coatings available which are applied to the underside of old slate roofs. Whilst these do undoubtedly provide a short term repair, the medium or long term merits of such a system are untested and a lot of surveyors believe these under spraying systems to have a limited life.
Clay Tiles
· Clay tiles come in all shapes and sizes ranging from flat (plain) tiles to those which overlap at the edges and form vertical rolls on the roof slope. Clay Tiles have been used widely for many years, although since the post-second world war period, concrete tiles have tended to have been used as an alternative.
· By nature a clay tile is not impervious to moisture and, as it ages, some water enters into the tile. This can lead to damage of the tile surface (lamination) when the moisture freezes and breaks off the face of the tile itself, both internally and externally. Where this is visible, beware – ongoing maintenance is needed.
· Tiles are either nailed onto roofing battens or hung onto the battens by means of nibs which are formed in their upper edge. Most manufacturers recommend that even tiles with nibs are nailed at regular intervals to prevent them being lifted by the wind. Corrosion of nail fixings is commonplace (known as nail sickness) and will mean ongoing maintenance. Due to the method of manufacture, tiles are often not flat, which allows water to be blown or drawn up between them and can cause dampness inside, especially if the roof is an unlined one. In time the nibs can shale away.
· Occasionally old wood pegs or aged random nails are found on very elderly roofs.
· If you are considering recovering a roof, do take advice before changing the covering material.
· There are various proprietary coatings available which are applied to the underside of old clay tiled roofs. Whilst these do undoubtedly provide a short term repair, the medium or long term merits of such a system are untested and most surveyors believe these under spraying systems to have a limited life.
Concrete Tiles
· Concrete tiles are reckoned to last at least 50 years. The general performance of concrete tiles is impressive, though they can be prone to lose surface colour which shows up replacement tiles.
· Sometimes a powdery “efflorescence” can be seen under the tiles. This is simply salts contained in some earlier concrete tiles emerging due to heat and dampness over a period of years. Eventually the tiles’ nibs can be eroded away, though this is likely to take many years.
· Certain tile shapes (especially pantiles) have an open void in them which needs sealing at gutter/base level mainly to prevent birds nesting under tiling and causing damage. It is often difficult to tell from ground level whether these seals are in place and it is always sensible to carry out a check whenever a property is being maintained or painted. Modern patent eaves level seals also allow important ventilation.
· In the course of time concrete tiles can become brittle.
Rainwater pipes
· Inadequate disposal of rainwater can cause serious problems in a building including damp, timber decay and structural movement. Keeping gutters and downpipes (and the drains to which they connect) clean and in good condition is always important.
· Gutters and downpipes are traditionally made in cast iron but with modern property, plastic is generally used. In addition, however, we frequently survey properties with asbestos, lead, tin or aluminium as alternatives. All gutters need to be laid to a slope in order to enable rainwater to run to a downpipe outlet. Guttering should always be fixed so that it catches as much water flow as possible from the roof above. Guttering systems frequently run on an inter-neighbour basis with semi-detached or terraced homes.
· Metal fittings are particularly prone to corrode and joints often fail. They need regular checks and maintenance if they are to be preserved.
· Traditionally downpipes discharge over open gulleys but today many downpipes are taken directly into the underground drainage system without an access gulley. This can cause problems for cleaning.
Chimneys
· Chimney stacks can be built in a variety of shapes heights and sizes, often elaborate for architectural purposes. However, the flues within the stacks are formed in one of two ways. Older houses have flues with a rendered internal face that can often fail and erode, causing smoke and fumes to escape and also causing general inefficiency. More modern properties have continuous liners that are effective for solid fuel and other fuels. Some old properties have flues which are just not adequate for modern use.
· Flue soundness and efficiency in older homes must never be assumed. Proper smoke tests are normally required to check flue soundness. If necessary old flues can be lined in order to bring them up to modern standards.
External walls
Stone Walls
· Stone is described according to the manner in which it is prepared and laid. The two main categories are known as ashlar and rubble. When stones are squared to a regular size and have smooth faces, they are known as ashlar. Rubble comprises stones of differing sizes which are either laid at random (a crazy paving appearance) or they can be laid roughly in courses.
· Many of our stone buildings are made of stone which is very aged and may have been re-cycled from previous buildings. Some types of stone are harder and more durable than others
· Frost is a major problem with some stones softening as water penetrates the surface and freezes, causing the surface to break off and at the same time allowing more water to penetrate into the core of the wall causing more damage.
· Poor repairs to stone work and the pointing between the stones can cause ongoing problems and it is always sensible to take the advice of a stone mason to ensure that repairs are appropriate.
· Because stone walls are generally thick, there is a popular conception that they are solid from inside to out. This is not always the case and the core of the wall is often filled with rubble and general debris.
Solid Brickwork
· Until the mid-1930’s most domestic property in this country was built in solid construction. This means that the bricks are laid in such a way that they run through the depth of the wall from inside to out and as a consequence this can permit damp to travel through the wall onto the internal surfaces. Generally a wall which is exposed to heavy driving rain will be more susceptible to damage than one which is sheltered.
· Areas under window sills tend to be more susceptible to water damage than other wall areas.
· In order to minimise the risk of damp penetration, the outside pointing and brickwork should be kept in as good a state as possible. Modern coatings are available to apply to solid brickwork to help weatherproof them but these do not always look attractive. They can cause problems if damp breaks through the coating and gets behind the weatherproofing.
· Heat loss tends to be greater through solid wall construction than it is through a cavity wall. A solid wall with a rendered finish can perform well if the render is maintained in a sound state.
· It tends to be inevitable that houses with solid wall detail suffer on occasions from condensation problems.
· Many older and inter-war built houses have projecting bays as a feature of the wall design. Often the upper storey bay wall is not built in brick at all but in timber – generally without any insulation.
Cavity Walls
· This is the normal form of construction found on houses from the mid-1930’s to the present day, although many older houses have a variation of the same form of wall detail.
· As the name implies, cavity walls are constructed with two leaves of brick or block work – with a cavity between. The benefits of the cavity are that the wall cannot let water through its depth whilst the air in the cavity offers improved insulation standards.
· The outer and inner leaves of a cavity wall are usually stabilised with ties made of galvanised steel or plastic.
· In some cases, the ties which hold the outer and inner leaves together begin to rust. At first, they expand causing the outer leaf to bow and eventually may collapse. Cavity wall tie failure is more common in older houses (prior to 1980) and is often known to be a problem in particular areas. We will alert you to potential maintenance regarding cavity wall ties if there are visible signs of problems or if we are aware of previous problems in nearby properties.
· Even though cavity construction is effective, water can sometimes penetrate the outer skin of the wall. Cavity trays should be inserted over window and door openings to catch this water. There should be drainage channels left through the mortar joints from these trays although they are frequently omitted.
· Brick is the most common form of outside finish on a cavity wall. Frost often attacks older bricks causing the surface to break off. This is known as “spalling”. Repair work is possible but costly if the job is to be done properly and the best approach is to cut out the failed bricks and replace them.
· It is common to see salty stains, particularly on new brickwork. They are of no structural significance and can be brushed off or left to be dispersed by weather action over a period of time.
· A rendered finish or some form of cladding applied to the outside of a modern cavity wall often indicates that both leaves of the wall are of block without any brick content.
Rendering
· Modern cement render can be inappropriate for old buildings because it is incompatible with the construction of most old buildings and can cause or accelerate serious decay. Modern buildings generally depend on an impervious outer layer and cavities to keep out moisture. By contrast, old buildings tend to rely on their porous nature ('breathability') to allow water absorbed by the fabric to evaporate back out
· The use of an impervious Portland cement render in place of a traditional lime-based covering restricts evaporation. Hairline cracks form due to the mortar being more rigid than the wall. These then draw in water that becomes trapped in the fabric. Timber-framed and earth constructed buildings in particular can suffer major structural damage if moisture builds up behind a cement rendering.
· It is generally a mistake not to replace render. There is a good chance that the building was rendered originally. Even if it was not, the rendering may have been applied at a later date as necessary protection against the weather.
· When a cement render has been removed, re-rendering should be delayed for a short period to allow drying out if the underlying fabric is saturated. Additionally, any areas of decayed backing must be made sound before the new render is applied to prevent its early failure.
Windows
· Traditionally windows were constructed in wood and generally old timber tends to be better than new timber and hardwood is more long lived than softwood.
· Increasingly wooden windows are being replaced with man made materials. During the 1970’s and early 1980’s aluminium units set in hardwood frames were very popular. Many of these windows, however, have become temperamental in the way they open and close. These days uPVC is the most commonly used material for replacement units and if looked after and if of a good standard these windows perform well.
· With PVC windows it is important to keep the material as clean and dry as possible and to maintain the mastic seals around the frames in a good state to help prevent any damp penetration. Regular maintenance of the window mechanisms tends to be necessary. Failure of the rubber seals and bushes tends to occur. It is vital to check whether any current guarantees are in force.
· With increased importance being paid within the building industry to insulation standards the quality of glazing has improved over the years, but many houses still have comparatively “ordinary” single glazed windows whilst some high quality triple glazed units are sometimes found.
· Unfortunately many double glazed windows suffer from failure causing the glass to mist over and the only solution is to replace the glazing. This type of failure can occur without warning. There are some indications that the average life of a sealed double glazing unit is some ten years only.
· Some houses built between 1920 and 1960 had steel framed windows. These are prone to rusting and as the metal corrodes and expands, the windows can become twisted or buckled and panes crack or break. This type of material also creates a cold surface which can lead to a high level of condensation.
· Lead light windows may look pretty, but they are troublesome to clean and do weaken with age.
Doors
· External softwood doors are the cheapest to fit, but the least durable. Unless very regularly decorated they will decay. Hardwood doors are better. Aluminium or uPVC replacement units are claimed to be the most efficient of all.
· The raised sill sections used with uPVC doors are vulnerable to foot damage.
· A damp-proof course (DPC) is a waterproof layer built into, or formed within, the walls to prevent ground dampness from rising.
· Virtually every urban property built in the last 120 years or so will have some sort of damp proof course in its wall. Many materials are in use, some being better and longer lived than others. The majority of the houses built in the last 60 years or so has a felt or pick based damp proof course along with blue brickwork. Before then slate or bitumen were frequently used. Many older houses have no built-in anti-damp protection.
· In order that a DPC can perform properly its line ought always to be at least two clear courses of brick above paths or garden surfaces. Whenever a lesser distance exists, the DPC can become ineffective and internal dampness can occur.
· Many older buildings suffer dampness due to inadequate damp proofing measures. The installation of a modern injection system (often identified by a series of drill holes in the brickwork) together with associated internal replastering can remedy such dampness. All damp proofing work ought to be dealt with by a competent and recognized specialist firm who can issue a valid guarantee. Internal replastering is an essential part of most damp proofing schemes.
Walls and Partitions
· Traditional, internal walls have always been built in solid materials (brick or block), or timber. Contrary to popular belief, timber walls can be load bearing.
· Modern houses often have lightweight non-load bearing thin partition walls especially at first floor level.
· All these different wall types give differing standards of noise and thermal insulation.
· Many wooden or partition walls are difficult to use to support heavy fixings or pictures. Special fixings are generally available for most wall types.
· Many modern homes have a dry lined (plasterboard type) finish to walls which may not easily accept heavy fixtures, but the system is effective and plaster shrinkage problems are minimised.
· In older properties, the walls are often lined with board to disguise or overcome problems of poor plaster, damp and insulation. This can be effective but long term problems can still arise.
Solid Floors
· Solid floors are normally made up with a concrete slab laid on a hardcore base. The hardcore helps spread the load evenly over the soil beneath and protects the concrete from chemicals in the soil. To achieve a floor that does not settle, hardcore needs to be well compacted. If the floors should subside, repair work is possible but can be costly.
· Concrete slabs are typically around 150mm thick and have a thin top layer (screed) which gives a level base for the floor finish (tile, carpet etc). Sometimes the slab is just smoothed off to provide a finishing surface without a screed.
· Solid floors should include a damp proof membrane (dpm). This is usually either a liquid bitumen coat or a layer of polythene or bitumen sheet. The dpm reduces moisture coming up through the floor by capillary action, though it does not resist direct water pressure. Poor workmanship on site often means that a dpm is torn or laid with gaps or laid with gaps which become damp spots later.
· In older properties original floors tend not to have a dpm and often suffer from dampness. These floors are often an important feature of the property and if the level of dampness is felt not sufficient to warrant lifting and re-laying the floor surface to include a dpm, these floors tend to be left and the damp lived with. However these floors should not be surfaced with any impermeable covering such as vinyl or rubber-backed carpet (and ideally should be left exposed).
Timber Floors
· Suspended timber floors have been used for many years without great design changes. Most problems result from under-sizing of the joists or poor conditions at the end support (bearing), or poor sub-ground ventilation.
· Joists bearing into solid walls (usually pre-World War II) can rot, particularly if the wall is exposed to prevailing winds and rain soaks through the brick or stonework.
· Very often, joists are cut or notched, to allow pipes and wiring to run under floorboards. There are clear regulations which now restrict what can be done, but all too often mistakes are made, sometimes resulting in the floor becoming springy. If the surveyor suspects this fault we will suggest further investigation is made.
· To prevent joists twisting, strutting is inserted usually some halfway along its length. Strutting is usually made with pieces of timber which are nailed between two joists at right angles to their length. When they are omitted the floor can become uneven or springy.
· When surveying a building it is rarely possible to carry out a full level of sub-floor checks and the surveyor will base their view on such inspection as is readily possible.
· More recent properties often have sheet chipboard/man made board flooring in place of more traditional floorboards. Because these materials can be laid in large panels, removal to access services can result in a very squeaky floor developing since the sheets are rarely properly re-fixed. The material tends to disintegrate on prolonged exposure to moisture and problems often occur near showers or washing machines in particular.
Lath and Plaster Ceilings
· Most modern ceilings are made of plasterboard, but up to World War II a plaster mix was applied onto thin strips of wood called laths. (In very old properties reeds or straw were often used to strengthen to material). The strength of this type of ceiling depends on how well the plaster keys into the laths. When the plaster starts to pull loose from the laths, it often becomes widespread and repair of a small crack can soon become a large repair. Vibration and noise can often be a cause of a lath and plaster ceiling to fail. The installation of central heating can also cause old plaster to simply dry out so much that it cracks and fails.
· It is not uncommon for old lathed ceilings to be covered over with a variety of materials and finishes. Over boarding in modern plasterboard is a common solution to a troublesome ceiling.
· Lathed ceilings are heavy and can fall unexpectedly if damaged!
Plasterboard Ceilings
· For nearly 50 years now plasterboard has replaced the use of lath and plaster in most ceiling construction. Boards come in a variety of thickness and in general are relatively maintenance free.
· Joints between boards are most commonly covered by tape. Hairline cracking along the joints, however, is not uncommon though relatively simple to fill and redecorate or lining paper can be applied prior to a decorative finish.
· Dampness is a problem for plasterboard which is made up of a plaster centre covered by heavy paper on both sides. When moist, the paper covering deteriorates and the plaster content generally swells and crumbles. Replacement is then normally necessary.
· Artex or similar textured finishes are popular but these are not easy to repair to a good standard.
Damp & Timber Treatment – Guarantees
· Very often in older properties we find that previous damp and timber treatments have been carried out and are subject to guarantees.
· Particular care needs to be exercised in respect of wood-rot, woodworm/beetle and damp guarantees.
· A guarantee will normally only cover those areas specifically treated, and this is normally identified in the original report, specification and plan.
· It is important that such documents are made available to you and your Legal Adviser.
· Insurance protection is sometimes available for un-treated areas.
Timber Defects
· As a general word of caution, in older properties of this type, it is our experience that there are likely to be timbers within the structure which have deteriorated over the years due to possible wood-worm/beetle infestation, damp or other reasons, and may be decayed and a cause of potential problems in the future.
· As with electricity, defects can be life-threatening and are even harder to detect. We can form some impression of the attention given to the gas installation by the appearance of the fittings and will note concerns in Section 4. That apart it is essential that every property which is provided with gas has a test and service every year. If a test is overdue, arrange one immediately. Make sure that the contractor you instruct on any gas matters has a current registration with Gas Safe. If the surveyor considers that further investigations are needed he will say so.
· All gas appliances and flues must be subject to an annual check and test.
· Surface run gas pipes both inside and out must be treated with care to avoid damage.
Water supply and Plumbing
Pipework & Tanks
· Most pipework in a building is concealed within the structure and fabric and we can only form an opinion based on the exposed parts of the installation.
· Copper tube is the most popular material used but in many new installations plastic is becoming increasingly popular as a cost effective alternative.
· In many older houses we still find old lead or galvanised piping, especially on the underground supply pipe. Some homeowners consider lead pipes to be a health risk. Old underground pipes can leak for many years undetected or suddenly burst unexpectedly. Replacing underground/floor pipes can be costly and disruptive.
· Water tanks come in a variety of shapes and sizes but plastic is the preferred modern material. In older properties we find older galvanised steel or cement asbestos tanks and ideally these should now be replaced.
· The ability of any central heating system to sufficiently heat all areas required depends on the efficiency of the boiler and the size and efficiency of the pipe runs and radiators. In order to tell accurately whether a central heating system is adequate, Heating Engineers have to carry out a series of calculations involving size of radiators, room and window sizes, capacity of the boiler etc. For this degree of assessment, a Heating Engineers’ involvement is essential.
· Modern combination boilers are increasingly popular, but they may produce limited amounts of hot water for bathing with poor levels of pressure.
Drains
· Foul drains are those taking waste from inside the building – WC, bath, kitchen, etc
· Below ground drainage systems must fulfil two functions in order to avoid problems:
1. they must discharge waste efficiently into the main sewer
2. they must avoid foul smells escaping near to the property
· A correct slope (fall) is required to all drainage runs. Where gradients are too shallow, matter can build up and drains will need to be rodded on a regular basis. It is for this reason that the building regulations insist that an inspection chamber is provided where ever drains change direction or gradient. In some cases, small access gullies known as rodding eyes are provided.
· One of the most common causes of problems in drains is damage caused by tree roots which get into drains in search of water. We will advise you if there are likely problems in this regard, though it is important not to plant shrubs or trees close to drainage runs.
· Many houses of all ages have drain runs which are not as watertight as they should be. This can only be determined by the carrying out of a formal test which is not part of a Building Survey inspection.
· It is a good practice to regularly flush through drains with hot soapy water.
GLOSSARY OF BUILDING TERMS
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Aggregate |
Pebbles, shingle, gravel, etc used in the manufacture of concrete, and in the construction of "soakaways". |
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Air Brick |
Perforated brick or metal/plastic grille used for ventilation, especially to floor voids (beneath timber floors) and roof spaces. |
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Architrave |
Joinery moulding around window or doorway. |
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Asbestos |
Fibrous mineral used in the past for insulation. Can be a health hazard - specialist advice should be sought if asbestos is found. |
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Asbestos Cement |
Cement with 10-15% asbestos fibre as reinforcement. Fragile - will not bear heavy weights. Hazardous fibres may be released if cut or drilled. |
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Ashlar |
Finely dressed natural stone: the best grade of masonry |
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Asphalt |
Black, tar-like substance, strongly adhesive and impervious to moisture. Used on flat roofs and floors. |
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Barge Board |
See "Verge Board". |
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Balanced Flue |
Common metal device normally serving gas appliances which allows air to be drawn to the appliance whilst also allowing fumes to escape (see also "Fan Assisted Flues"). |
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Batten |
Thin lengths of timber used in the fixing of roof tiles or slates. |
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Beetle Infestation |
(Wood-boring insects: eg woodworm) Larvae of various species of beetle which tunnel into timber causing damage. Specialist treatment normally required. Can also affect furniture. |
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Benching |
Smoothly contoured concrete slope beside drainage channel within an inspection chamber. Also known as "Haunching". |
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Bitumen |
Black, sticky substance, related to asphalt. Used in sealants, mineral felts and damp proof courses. |
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Breeze Block |
Originally made from cinders ("breeze") - the term now commonly used to refer to various types of concrete and cement building blocks. |
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Carbonation |
A natural process affecting the outer layer of concrete. Metal reinforcement within that layer is liable to early corrosion, with consequent fracturing of the concrete. |
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Cavity Wall |
Standard modern method of building external walls of houses comprising two leaves of brick or blockwork separated by a gap ("cavity") of about 50mm (2 inches). |
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Cavity Wall Insulation |
Filling of wall cavities by one of various forms of insulation material: |
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Beads: Polystyrene beads pumped into the cavities. Will easily fall out if the wall is broken open for any reason. |
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Fibreglass: Can lead to problems if becomes damp. |
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Foam: Urea formaldehyde form, mixed on site, and pumped into the cavities where it sets. Can lead to problems of dampness and make investigation/replacement of wall ties more difficult. |
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Rockwool: Inert mineral fibre pumped into the cavity. |
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Cavity Wall Tie |
Metal device bedded into the inner and outer leaves of cavity wall. Failure by corrosion can result in the wall becoming unstable - specialist replacement ties are then required. |
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Cesspool |
A simple method of drainage comprising a holding tank which needs frequent emptying. Not to be confused with "Septic Tank". |
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Chipboard |
Also referred to as "Particle Board". Chips of wood compressed and glued into sheet form. Cheap method of decking to flat roofs and (with formica or melamine surface) furniture, especially kitchen units. Also commonly used on floors. Tends to swell if moisture content increased. |
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Collar |
Horizontal timber member intended to restrain opposing roof slopes. Absence, removal or weakening can lead to roof spread. |
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Combination Boiler |
Modern form of gas boiler which activates on demand. With this form of boiler there is no need for water storage tanks, hot water cylinders, etc but are complex and more expensive to repair. Water supply rate can be slow. |
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Coping/Coping Stone |
Usually stone or concrete, laid on top of a wall as a decorative finish and to stop rainwater soaking into the wall. |
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Corbel |
Projection of stone, brick, timber or metal jutting out from a wall to support a weight. |
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Cornice |
Ornamental moulded projection around the top of a building or around the wall of a room just below the ceiling. |
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Coving |
Curved junction piece to cover the join between wall and ceiling surfaces. |
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Dado Rail |
Wooden moulding fixed horizontally to a wall, about 1 metre (3ft 4in) above the floor, originally intended to protect the wall against damage by chair backs. |
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Damp Proof Course |
Layer of impervious material (mineral felt, PVC, etc) incorporated into a wall to prevent dampness around windows, doors, etc. Various proprietary methods are available for damp proofing existing walls including "electro-osmosis" and chemical injection. |
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Damp Proof Membrane |
Usually polythene, incorporated within ground floor slabs to prevent rising dampness. |
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Deathwatch Beetle |
Serious insect pest in structural timbers, usually affects old hardwoods with fungal decay already present. |
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Double Glazing |
A method of thermal insulation usually either: |
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Sealed unit: Two panes of glass fixed and hermetically sealed together; or |
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Secondary: In effect a second "window" placed inside the original window. |
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Dry Rot |
A fungus which attacks structural and joinery timbers, often with devastating results. Can flourish in moist, unventilated areas. |
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Eaves |
The overhanging edge of a roof at gutter level. |
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Efflorescence |
Salts crystallised on the surface of a wall as a result of moisture evaporation. |
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Engineering Brick |
Particularly strong and dense type of brick, sometimes used as a damp proof course. Usually blue in colour. |
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Fan Assisted Flues |
Similar to "Balanced Flue" but with fan assistance to move air or gases. |
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Fibreboard |
Cheap, lightweight board material of little strength, used in ceilings or as insulation to attics. |
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Fillet |
Mortar used to seal the junction between two surfaces, ie between a slate roof and a brick chimney stack. |
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Flashing |
Thin sheet material used to prevent leakage at a roof joint. Normally metal (lead, zinc or copper). |
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Flaunching |
Contoured cement around the base of cement pots, to secure the pot and to throw off rain. |
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Flue |
A smoke duct in a chimney, or a proprietary pipe serving a heat producing appliance such as a central heating boiler. |
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Flue Lining |
Metal (usually stainless steel) tube within a flue - essential for high output gas appliances such as boilers. May also be manufactured from clay and built into the flue. |
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Foundations |
Normally concrete, laid underground as a structural base to a wall; in older buildings may be brick or stone. |
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Frog |
A depression imprinted in the upper surface of a brick, to save clay, reduce weight and increase the strength of the wall. |
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Gable |
Upper section of a wall, usually triangular in shape, at either end of a ridged roof. |
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Ground Heave |
Swelling of clay subsoil due to absorption of moisture; can cause an upward movement in foundations. |
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Gulley |
An opening into a drain, normally at ground level, placed to receive water, etc from downpipes and waste pipes. |
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Haunching |
See "Benching". Also term used to describe the support to an underground drain. |
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Hip |
The external junction between two intersecting roof slopes. |
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Inspection Chamber |
Commonly called "manhole"; provides access to a drain comprising a chamber (of brick, concrete or plastic) with the drainage channel at its base and a removable cover at ground level. |
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Jamb |
Side part of a doorway or window (see also “reveals”). |
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Joist |
Horizontal structural timber used in flat roof, ceiling and floor construction. Occasionally also metal. |
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Landslip |
Downhill movement of unstable earth, clay, rock, etc often following prolonged heavy rain or coastal erosion, but sometimes due entirely to subsoil having little cohesive integrity. |
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Lath |
Thin strip of wood used as a backing to plaster. |
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Lintel |
Horizontal structural beam of timber, stone, steel or concrete placed over window or door openings. |
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Longhorn Beetle |
A serious insect pest mainly confined to the extreme south east of England, which can totally destroy the structural strength of wood. |
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LPG |
Liquid Petroleum Gas (or Propane). Available to serve gas appliances in areas without mains gas. Requires a storage tank. |
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Mortar |
Traditionally a mixture of lime and sand. Modern mortar is a mixture of cement and sand. Used for bonding brickwork, etc. |
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Mullion |
Vertical bar dividing individual lights in a window. |
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Newel |
Stout post supporting a staircase handrail at top and bottom. Also, the central pillar of a winding or spiral staircase. |
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Oversite |
Rough concrete below timber ground floors. |
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Parapet |
Low wall along the edge of a flat roof, balcony, etc. |
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Pier |
A vertical column of brickwork or other material, used to strengthen the wall or to support a weight. |
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Plasterboard |
Stiff "sandwich" of plaster between coarse paper. Now in widespread use for ceilings and walls. |
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Pointing |
Smooth outer edge of mortar joint between bricks, stones, etc. |
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Powder Post Beetle |
A relatively uncommon pest which can, if untreated, cause widespread damage to structural timbers. |
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Purlin |
Horizontal beam in a roof upon which rafters rest. |
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Quoin |
The external angle of a building, or, specifically, bricks or stone blocks forming that angle. |
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Rafter |
A sloping roof beam, usually timber, forming the carcass of a roof. |
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Random Rubble |
Primitive method of stone wall construction with no attempt at bonding or coursing. |
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Rendering |
Vertical covering of a wall either plaster (internally) or cement based (externally), sometimes with pebbledash, stucco or Tyrolean textured finishes. |
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Reveals |
The side faces of a window or door opening (see also “jambs”). |
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Ridge |
The apex of a roof. |
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Riser |
The vertical part of a step or stair. |
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Rising Damp |
Moisture soaking up a wall from below ground, by capillary action causing rot in timbers, plaster decay, decoration failure, etc. |
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Roof Spread |
The thrust of a badly restrained roof structure (see "Collar") causing outward bowing of a wall. |
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Screed |
Final, smooth finish of a solid floor; usually mortar, concrete or asphalt. |
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Septic Tank |
Drain installation whereby sewage decomposes through bacteriological action, which can be slowed down or stopped altogether by the use of chemicals such as bleach, biological washing powders, etc. |
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Settlement |
General disturbance in a structure showing as distortion in walls, etc, usually as the result of the initial compacting of the ground due to the loading of the building. |
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Shakes |
Naturally occurring cracks in timber; in building timbers, shakes can appear quite dramatic, but strength is not always impaired. |
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Shingles |
Small rectangular pieces of wood used on roofs instead of tiles, slates, etc. |
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Soaker |
Sheet metal (usually lead, zinc or copper) at the junction of a roof with a vertical surface of a chimney stack, adjoining wall, etc. Associated with flashings which should overlay soakers. |
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Soffit |
The under-surface of eaves, balcony, arch, etc. |
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Solid Fuel |
Heating fuel, normally coal, coke or one of a variety of proprietary fuels. |
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Spandrel |
Space above and to the sides of an arch. |
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Stud Partition |
Lightweight, sometimes non-loadbearing wall construction comprising a framework of timber faced with plaster, plasterboard or other finish. |
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Subsidence |
Ground movement possibly as a result of mining activities, clay shrinkage or drainage problems. |
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Subsoil |
Soil lying immediately below the top soil, upon which foundations usually bear. |
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Sulphate Attack |
Chemical reaction, activated by water, between tricalcium aluminate and soluble sulphates. Can cause deterioration in brick walls, concrete floors and external rendering. |
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Tie Bar |
Heavy metal bar passing through a wall, or walls, to brace a structure suffering from structural instability. |
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Torching |
Mortar applied on the underside of roof tiles or slates to help prevent moisture penetration. Not necessary when a roof is underdrawn with felt. |
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Transom |
Horizontal bar of wood or stone across a window or top of door. |
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Tread |
The horizontal part of a step or stair. |
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Trussed Rafters |
Method of roof construction utilising prefabricated triangular framework of timbers. Now widely used in domestic construction. |
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Underpinning |
Methods of strengthening weak foundations whereby a new, stronger foundation is placed beneath the original. |
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Valley Gutter |
Horizontal or sloping gutter, usually lead or tile lined, at the internal intersection between two roof slopes. |
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Ventilation |
Necessary in all buildings to disperse moisture resulting from bathing, cooking, breathing, etc, and to assist in prevention of condensation. |
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Floors: Necessary to avoid rot, especially dry rot, achieved by air bricks near to ground level. |
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Roofs: Necessary to disperse condensation within roof spaces; achieved either by air bricks in gables or ducts at the eaves. |
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Verge |
The edge of a roof, especially over a gable. |
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Verge Board |
Timber, sometimes decorative, placed at the verge of a roof; also known as a "Barge Board". |
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Wainscot |
Wood panelling or boarding on the lower part of an internal wall. |
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Wallplate |
Timber placed at the eaves of a roof to take the weight of the roof timbers. |
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Wet Rot |
Decay of timber due to damp conditions. Not to be confused with the more serious "Dry Rot". |
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Woodworm |
Colloquial term for beetle infestation; usually intended to mean Common Furniture Beetle, by far the most frequently encountered insect attack in structural and joinery timbers. |
GENERAL MAINTENANCE NOTES These notes are provided as a guide to enable you to inspect your property on a regular basis, to help keep it in good order. They must not be considered to be definitive or fully comprehensive. Regular maintenance inspections and prompt repair of any defects noticed will help keep your repair costs to a minimum. If neglected they may lead to more expensive repairs. You should look at: The Roofs 1. Check that all the tiles and slates are in good order and replace any that are cracked, slipped or damaged. Ensure that the mortar pointing at the roof edges is kept in good condition. Flat Roofs 2. Make sure that the chippings remain evenly laid. If cracked or bubbled areas are noticed, have these repaired immediately. Lead and Mortar Flashings 3. Lead flashing should lay properly, mortar fillets should be free from cracks. Mortar fillets are not fully satisfactory and are best replaced with lead. Guttering 4. Should run to the downpipe heads at an even slope and be free from splits and cracks. Replace or repair missing or defective sections immediately to protect the property. Clean out the gutters regularly to remove weeds, leaves and granite chippings. Gutter joints do deteriorate with age and the need for resealing must be anticipated from time to time. Downpipes 5. Check that the junctions of the gutters to the downpipes are in good order and also the joints between the downpipes and the underground piping at ground level. If any downpipes discharge over gulley grids, clear and maintain brick surrounds to stop debris blocking the gulleys. 6. Replace or repair missing or defective sections immediately. Chimneys 7. Keep chimney pots in good order and ensure they are securely joined to the top of the chimney. Keep the brickwork mortar joints in good condition. If you notice any cracking of the brickwork have it repaired at once. 8. If television aerials have been fixed to the chimney ensure that they are properly secured. External Joinery (incl. Gutter and Barge Boards, Verge Cappings and Snow Boards) 9. Keep in good repair and well decorated. Outside Walls 10. Keep the brickwork, mortar joints in good order. Poor maintenance of brick pointing leads to damp penetration and damage to the brick surface. 11. Make sure the mortar joint protecting the damp proof course is keep in good condition. 12. Keep the joints between the window and door frames and the brickwork in good watertight condition with pliable mastic sealant. 13. Make sure that the mortar around the waste pipes is in good condition. 14. Keep soil and paths at least 150mm below the level of the floors inside to prevent penetrating dampness. 15. If there are air bricks, make sure they are in good order and free from blockage. 16. If the walls are mortar rendered, make sure it is not cracked or loose. Water will get behind poor rendering leading to dampness. All cracked or loose areas should be repaired or replaced. 17. Regularly redecorate any painted walls or timber boarded areas. Windows and Doors 18. Periodically inspect the frames and repair any timbers affected by wet rot. Regular painting helps avoid timber going rotten. 19. Replace cracked and broken panes of glass and renew loose or missing putties before redecoration to avoid wet rot in the frames. 20. Replace broken sash cords and window catches. Inside the Loft 21. Make a regular inspection to check for signs of leaks which can lead to wet or dry rot taking hold. Carry out any necessary repairs immediately. 22. Check the chimney brickwork for heat cracks. 23. Make sure the roof timbers are not broken, split or affected by rot. 24. Clean out water tanks, maintain ball valves and keep tanks and pipes properly insulated and covered. 25. Insulate the loft if this has not been done. Do not insulate right up to the eaves or below the water tanks. Make sure the electrical cables are not covered by the insulation. 26. Look for wood-boring beetle flight holes and if in any doubt have a specialist firm make an inspection. 27. Check ceilings under flat roofs for any signs of leaks and repair affected areas immediately. Plumbing, Heating and Electrics 28. Ensure that the external and internal stopcocks are readily available in an emergency. 29. Keep the plumbing pipework in good condition and periodically clean out the traps to baths, sinks and wash basins. 30. Have the central heating appliances annually serviced by a Gas Safe registered contractor. 31. Do not make any alterations to the electrical wiring without qualified advice. Amateur repairs and additions can lead to failure of the circuits, fire and risk of electric shock. 32. It is advised that the electrical installation is checked by the Electricity Board at least every five years as cables and fittings deteriorate with age. Decorations 33. Internally, keep the ceilings, walls and woodwork in good decorative condition. 34. External paintwork should not be left more than four years without redecoration. Drainage 35. Periodically lift the manhole covers and have the drains cleaned out if necessary. Keep manhole covers and surrounding mortar in good condition. 36. If you have a septic tank; have it pumped out at least once a year. In the Garden 37. Keep the hedges, walls, fences, gates, paths and driveways in good order. 38. Keep soil, shrubs and trees away from outside walls. Shrubs and trees can break drainage pipes and potentially cause subsidence. 39. Cut back wall creepers regularly as they can destroy the mortar joints between brickwork, stonework, etc encourage dampness and insects and block gutters. Outbuildings/Garages 40. Check the roofs, gutters, downpipes and walls as suggested for the house. 41. Regularly redecorate timber surfaces. 42. Keep door hinges and locks well oiled. Regularly clean out sliding door channels.
